Lakota woman

Mary Crow Dog was a Native American who wrote the book Lakota Woman as her autobiography.   She was a half-blood Sioux Indian.   She was born on the year 1953 and lives at the Rosebud Sioux Indian Reservation located in the state of South Dakota.   Her given name was Mary Brave Bird.   She became Mary Crow Dog after marrying Leonard Crow Dog, a medicine man and a spiritual leader of AIM or American Indians Movement who is also responsible in reviving the ancient Indian culture and ceremonies including the sacred but outlawed Ghost Dance.   To date, Mary Crow Dog has already one daughter named Jennifer and three sons including her first child Pedro and the two from her husband, which they named June Bug and Anwah.   Lakota Woman was one of the two books authored by Mary Crow Dog. The book Lakota Woman started in a light manner where Mary begins to teach the readers some facts, which are not commonly known by many of us.   Ethnically speaking and as taught by Mary, Sioux was divided into two parts: the eastern and the western.   Eastern Sioux was called Dakota, and the Western Sioux was the Lakota.   It was almost the same except that Dakota people cannot pronounce the letter â€Å"L†. Technically, Lakota was a formation of a seven tribes in Western Sioux also known as seven Sacred Campfires.   One of the tribes was the Brule Tribe or Sicangu in a Lakotan language, which is also known as Burned Thighs, and which Mary described as great warriors as they were during their times.   In this tribe Mary Brave Bird belongs. It was in 1870 and 1880 when the Brule Tribe along with other Sioux were forced to put in a reservation camp and trying to create new people living in an Americanized way including living without horses and hunting which Indians are born to live with. Lakota Woman was merely a full-blown and a first-hand account of Mary’s life.   She collectively told everything she has experienced.   She said that it was really hard and difficult to survive in any reservation camp, especially growing women like her.   She lived fatherless in a one-room cabin inside the Rosebud Reservation.   There she stated stories of some Indian women close to her whom she known was undergone maltreatment and injustice practices such as making them infertile against their will, beaten by their husbands or any men, brutality from American authorities, and the worse scenario of being murdered. Mary’s experiences in a Catholic boarding school were more of a distressing one rather than making happy memories.   At her young age, she found out that being an Indian female is only a third-class human being.   Inside the boarding school, teachers and nuns were trying these Indian girls to be Americanized, got whipped and beaten whenever found any disobedience practices in accordance to their upright monastery standard, which includes practicing their native customs, values and language. Her adolescence was even worse especially when she decided to step out of the boarding school.   She confessed her life was even more miserable as she got hooked into drinking and smoking, used drugs, victimized by poverty, racism and cruelness of the outside world.   Mary was 14 then when she got raped.   Age 17 when Mary finally had the best decision of joining the American Indian Movement where she participated right away in the 71-day long Wounded Knee standoff at South Dakota.   Then she married Leonard Crow Dog. When her husband was arrested, Mary Crow Dog began empowering herself and made herself vigilant in her own way knowing that most Americans were trying to kill their old native traditions, religion and the ancient Indian heritage as a whole.   Her active involvement in the AIM was getting stronger and stronger as she learned to be a public figure, delivering public speeches, informing the public about the mission and vision of their movement.   While helping Leonard endure his prison life, she eventually established a new strength as she traveled to gain support for their advocacy of fighting for the rights of American Indians. Although the Lakota woman was originally wrote as an autobiography book having personal accounts of Mary, it has to be consider one of the essential pieces of history volumes because it noted numerous historical facts and events that are important in American Indian history.   For those who have scant knowledge about it, especially in this modern generation, reading Lakota Women would be a great help.   Our interests in Indian stories should not just stop by having a fascination with it because there is more in reality, which contains the good and bad sides of it that we have to know and understand well. R E F E R E N C E S Dog, Mary C. Lak â€Å"Lakota woman† In 1953 at the Rosebud Indian Reservation in South Dakota, one of the most controversial American Indian authors was born. Mary Brave Bird (Sioux Indian name) which will be Mary Crow Dog in the future and to be an active activist against racial discrimination by the American whites was the writer of the two famous books, Ohitika Woman and the Lakota Woman.Lakota Woman which had contributed to the Indian’s historical struggle against racial discrimination is the autobiography of Mary Crow Dog. Here she described in full details her stressful story as an Indian girl who defined herself as half-breed. Her father has the blood of an American white while her mother is a full-blooded Sioux woman. Unfortunately, Mary was looked down upon by whites and full blooded-Indians alike because whites despised the Indians and vice versa. In effect, she grew up without friends and a loner.Born by a Catholic mother, Mary was persuaded to be a believer of this faith. She grew up in an indecent n eighborhood where men are jobless, drunk and worthless. Women are even treated like slaves by their husbands. Having the blood of a white American, she was brought to a Catholic boarding school to Americanize her but Mary described her school environment comparative to prisons of the Nazi concentration camps.She escaped from her school when she cannot bear the harsh treatment and the grave discrimination against her. Being outside the campus she joined small groups of outsiders and found solace with their company. She learned how to live the hard way but ultimately also learn how to blend with the drifters and smoke marijuana. She also became an alcoholic and was involved with many troubles.Meeting a guy at the young age of 16, married and got pregnant eventually did not change her confused life. Mary was in constant motion and nowhere to go. She learned to live in the ghetto and had to be tough with the harsh environment.Mary believed and felt that she was more of an Indian rather than partly an American because she was always treated as one. She became a member of a movement called the American Indian Movement (AIM) where he met her future husband, Leonard Crow Dog. Leonard was an Indian activist and a medicine man of many villages. He is constantly on public speaking against racial discrimination of American Indians and spoke of their rights and speaking of injustices.   AIM, however, was founded in 1968 with the goal of fighting the white’s discriminatory justice and social system. Their movement was inspired from the revolutions of blacks against whites’ racism.Eventually, Mary’s amazement with Leonard’s eloquence got Mary’s interest and the two fell in love and finally married. But Leonard was 12 years older than Mary and marrying him was not easy. The family of Leonard does not agree with the relationship because she was not a pure Indian by blood. Her family does not accept Leonard either because he is not a Christi an. As they both fought for their love, eventually their love lead to marriage.One of the highlights of this book was the killing of one of the leaders of AIM by a white man in 1973. The murderer was not properly investigated and was quickly released without the proper trial. The American Justice system obviously was one-sided for the whites as in this case. The American Indians were outraged and riots were formed outside the court which led to destruction of properties, looting, and more fighting with the police. The struggle led to their grouping at the Wounded Knee. Wounded Knee was symbolical to the Sioux Indians as this is where in 1890, 300 Indian men, women and children were massacred by authorities fighting for their rights of their ancestral land.Mary participated in spite of being pregnant. She said she was ready to face any consequence if there would be an attack against them. Although the FBI and the federal government tried to stop their protest, their pleas for fair tr ial had not been heard. Riots again broke out which resulted in the killing of two Indians and several people injured including a white man.That same year, Leonard together with three of their members thought of bringing their case to Washington to personally state their grievance. But during Leonard’s absence, Mary’s uncle was murdered. Together with her son Pedro, she went to attend her uncle’s funeral. But on the way to her visit, the police snatched her, put her in prison and took her baby away. Leonard was outraged when he discovered about his wife’s events. He immediately went back from his meeting in Washington with an agreement in his hand and bailed out Mary out of prison.One of the uneventful things that Mary encountered was when she and her husband attended a ceremony for Indian rites in Washington. After the rite and about to go home, they found out that their gas tank was punctured and leaking. Two white men who obviously are the culprit were still there and even laughing at them.Confronting them, they began to attack Leonard, pulling his long hair and pushing him over. The commotion attracted a number of Indians and approached to help. Incidentally, some white men with their baseball bats appeared from nowhere and attacked all the Indians. Mary run to the police car parked nearby but instead of helping them they left and did not intervene. Later, they learned that one of the popular pastimes of these whites was to beat up Indians roaming in their area.Leonard was a decent man and popularly known as a medicine man with no interest in politics. But to the white community, he was an activist, a rebel and a dangerous person especially after his stint at the Wounded Knee. The federal government knew that he has a great influence over all the Indians in the reservation areas and would listen to him. Eventually, a criminal plot was staged against him and the white’s influence in the federal court has led to his arrest. He was jailed with a 200,000 US dollar fine.Mary had no option but to earn this money through public speaking on behalf of her husband’s imprisonment and the need to raise the money. Although money has been raised and he was freed, their house was burned down afterwards and attacks against AIM members resulted in many killings. Until now, their cases have never been investigated (Wolf).Work Cited:Wolf, Dan. â€Å"Lakota Woman.† 2006. http://ericstoller.com/blog/2006/03/30/lakota-woman/.

How My Brother Brought Home a Wife

Republic of the Philippines Bulacan State University Office of the Student Government City of Malolos, Bulacan Supreme Student CouncilS. Y. 2012-2013Ron Elli Q, SantosSenator, Supreme Student CouncilChair, Finance CommitteeKrissia Bianca R. De JesusVice President, Supreme Student CouncilHead, Legislative BodyJulius S. DadoPresident, Supreme Student CouncilStudent RegentNoted:Ricardo B. Capule, Jr. Adviser, Student GovernmentRecommending Approval:Dr. Evangeline G. CustodioVice President, Administration and FinanceDr. Nicanor C.Dela Rama, PMEDean, Student Affairs and ServicesApproved By:Dr. Mariano C. De JesusUniversity President| Resolution Number ______, s. 2012-2013 â€Å"A resolution requesting the bulacan state university administration to release the amount of Php 7,000. 00 for financial assistance for the rock our music association of the student in the university (romasu) for their skate competition for the upcoming university foundation week† WHEREAS, the Student Govern ment is mandated to promote the welfare and defend the rights of its constituents;WHEREAS, the Student Government is composed of Supreme Student Council, Local Student Councils, and Satellite Campus Student Councils; WHEREAS, the Supreme Student Council is composed of President, Vice President, five Senators, and four Ex-officio Senators; WHEREAS, the remaining SG Fund is sufficient to finance this resolution; WHEREAS,the fund will be used for financial assistance for the rock our music association of the student in the university (romasu) for their skate competition for the upcoming university foundation week.NOW, THEREFORE, be it resolved that we, the members of the Supreme Student Council seek for the release of PhP7,000. 00to finance this resolution; RESOLVED, further mentioned this resolution will be approved by the Bulacan State University President DONE, this 24th of november, in the year of our Lord Two Thousand Twelve at Bulacan State University, City of Malolos, Bulacan. C heck to be named to:Ron Elli Q, Santos Patrick jan d. carpio Senator, Supreme Student Council Students’ right and welfare Committee

Arab Nationalism in the Modern Context

Arab Nationalism in the Modern Context ‘Arab Nationalism’ was an important part of anti-colonial struggle. A generation on it has little meaning today. Discuss. This essay will examine to what extent Arab nationalism as an ideology was of significance to the anti-colonial struggle and the influence of Arab nationalism in present times. A prominent question of interest in this study will be: was western domination eliminated due to the might of Arab nationalism? Certainly there has been a debate surrounding the significance of Arab nationalism today, this essay will highlight central issues surrounding the debate such as whether Arab nationalism has terminally declined or has just become a lessened force. A further question of concern will be: If Arab nationalism has gone into political remission could it be revived or gain appeal in present times? Furthermore this study will analyse when Arab nationalism was at its strongest and when the greatest expression of Arab nationalism were evident. Arab nationalism is considered to be a nationalist ideology which objective is to achieve a unified Arab nation encompassing the entire territory which is categorised as â€Å"the Arab World† from the Atlantic Ocean to the Persian Gulf (Karsh Arab nationalism and the set of beliefs surrounding the ideology were believed to have the capability to dissolve such matters in order to redeem and revert back to an indigenous culture and heritage. Most of the Arab world experienced colonial suppression and were ruled by western powers such as Britain and France. Was Arab nationalism vital in the struggle against colonialism? It is deemed that â€Å"†¦through the imperial world during the decolonizing period, protest, resistance, and independence movements were fuelled by one or another nationalism† (Said, 1993). The end of the Second World War caused vast political, social and economic transformations to the world order subsequently certain colonised nations gained their independence. In spite of this, the end of explicit or direct colonialism obviously did not equate to the termination of colonial dominance. European powers sought to retain their power across the Middle East and North Africa and colonialism still dominated large parts of the region. European imperialist presence was still evident as certain monarchies were under their rule and were still well disposed to them. For example, Egypt had been granted independence by the British in 1933 however Britain still played a direct role in Egyptian affairs and exercised a huge influence over the nation. It would be in this context that Arab nationalism would serve to provide a compelling set of beliefs and gain ground as a robust force in opposition to foreign occupation. Rafik Asha deemed that â€Å"(Arab) nationalism constitutes the vital soul-force of our people, the bloodstream of Arab life and political vitality, the spirit which guides a resurgent people towards freedom from domination, servitude and pat ronage† (Pfaff, 1970). The Arab nationalist movement was immensely advanced by Gamal Abdel Nasser whom attained power in Egypt and became the nation’s president. In 1956, Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal which had still been occupied by the British. Furthermore, he fought against British, French and Israeli hostility and attacks towards Egypt later on that year. Both these forms of action exhibited a defiant attitude towards the Western powers and inevitably forced them into submission. During this epoch, Arab nationalism gained immense support and popularity throughout the Middle East and North Africa due to Nasser’s leadership furthermore many people in other Arab nations believed that they shared a common struggle against colonial powers.

Contested masculinities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Contested masculinities - Essay Example With reference to Brett Easton Ellis’s American Psycho (1991) and Jackie Kay’s Trumpet (1998), this essay explores the multitude of expressions of masculinity within and between cultures. Contemporary theorists of masculinity have increasingly noted the idea of a post-feminist male identity (Burr 1995). There is a perceived backlash towards advances in feminism over the last quarter century that posits male identity in direct opposition to feminism. In books such as Backlash and Stiffed, Susan Faludi has identified a crisis in masculinity and a resultant wave of males attempting to reassert traditional identity constructions. She discusses ways in which men have lost significance in modern society. Writers such as Benjamin Brabon have discussed the appearance of such expressions of masculinity in cultural artifacts such as the film Falling Down, arguing that the white-male main character is acting out in the film because his previously dominate social position western society has been dislocated in the new millennium (Brabon 57). Other writers identify the normative standards that underline many expressions of male masculinity and explore the resultant backlash (Bark er 2008). These interpretations of ‘post-feminist man’ has incorporated the violent outbursts of males in contemporary society and films as extensions of phallus emasculation experienced as a result of these feminist advances. In fact, statistical research has shown that over the last twenty-year period woman are more than twice as likely to report being attacked by a significant other (Hatty 5). In terms of patriarchy, Thomas Byer argues that: Perhaps the major – function and driving force of patriarchal narrative is the attempt to re-member a masculine body whose member has been â€Å"dissed† Thus sadism and violence directed against women are not in themselves synonymous with narrative; rather they are among the most common, and most virulently misogynist,

Romanticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Romanticism - Essay Example I would agree with the statement that music is emotional. It could also be said that music is the most emotional of all arts. However I do not agree that music finds its ultimate style in Romanticism. Many composers, before and after the Romanticism movement, can evoke emotion as well. The Romantic style opened the doors for a broader spectrum of emotional music. It broke the standards of music of the time, allowing composers and musicians to express themselves openly. I do respect the Romantic style for that. While I have my favorites, I would not place one music style over another one. This includes the Romanticism era as well. Romanticism allowed the composer or artist the freedom to express their emotions. Instead of trying to please the audience, the artist wrote and played music for themselves. Lee Marshall explains: The only appropriate judge of the work becomes the artists himself because only the artist knows whether the work is true and the audience can only abide by Romanticism’s ‘first law [which] is the will of the creator.’ (33) The artist pours themselves into a piece of work, which in turn allows the audience to feel the artist’s emotion more clearly. An example would be Shubert’s â€Å"Death and a Maiden†. This piece of music relates how Shubert feels about his impending death.

California public policy on Abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

California public policy on Abortion - Essay Example This issue is fascinating and imperative because it touches on moral, ethical, religious and legal issues of the subject person. For instance, although the law my define abortion as legal and within woman’s right, some religions would not approve it as well as different ethical issues interconnected on the same. It is interesting because whichever the perspective one looks at it or argues the case, there seems not to be a consensus since all facts of every aspect of it turns out to be accurate. Nevertheless, the application of utilitarianism theory can be argued to have played a critical part in the development of the abortion law in California since the law still remains controversial with some people not agreeable to it (Riley 2). With the current trend on the issue, it is apparent that the law can only be amended to give room for restrictions or the basis under which abortion can be allowed. This is arguably true because, according to public policy institute of California (Para 3), current survey indicate that they are still in favour of the law and actually want the Supreme Court not to interfere with the

Evidence-Based Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Evidence-Based Practice - Essay Example In the field of nursing and medicine, the already existing medical knowledge is undergoing advances with every passing minute. For that matter, it is important for a student nurse or a practicing one to be in touch with these developments and a feasible way for that is research conduction. It not only broadens the horizon for the researcher but also if the conducted research is good enough it proves to be a useful tool for fellow professionals in the setting.  Mosby’s Medical Dictionary (2009) defines Evidence-Based Practice as health care practice in which the practitioner, be it the doctor, nurse or any other healthcare professional, finds sifts through and then uses the latest and appropriate research findings for his clinical decision making. The evidence-based practice has been integrated with almost all professions including medicine, nursing, psychiatry, law etc. With the ever improving sophistication of professional dealings, the responsibility increases on the shoul ders of a nurse, a doctor or any other professional for that matter, to provide the best possible quality of service. This is where evidence based practice comes into play. By developing patient centered approaches in the delivery of quality care using the latest evidence available, evidence based care can be implemented in nursing practice (Emanuel, et al. 2011).  Field and Lohr (1992) define clinical practice guidelines as statements which are developed systematically in order to assist practitioners and patients alike in their decision making regarding requisite health care for various scenarios.  The aim of these statements is to define the role of specific modalities of both diagnostic and therapeutic value for the management of patients. Formation of these guidelines involves a lot of research and evidence based study established on published medical literature.  

Interpersonal communication about When Harry met Sally movie Essay

Interpersonal communication about When Harry met Sally movie - Essay Example One of the producers and writer, Nora Ephron won an Oscar award. The main characters, Harry and Sally whose real names are Billy Crystal and Meg Ryan were also nominated as the best actor and actress. The film received critical reviews, which were positive (Internet Movie Database, 1990). Some of the most credible critics cited that the film had some of the most entertaining scenes and funny. The theory proposes that relational closeness always progresses from a superficial state to one which is intimate (Kanu, 2008). Harry and Sally’s relationship only grew when they were alone after separating from their lovers. For example, Sally had broken up with her fiancà © Joe and had to disclose it to Harry. In another scene, Harry is seen alone (Reiner, 1989). Similar to what the theory proposes, the closeness between two people develops as a result of self-disclosure. The RDT theory posits that relationships between people always reflect the tensions existing when people are communicating which usually arises from conflicts (Kanu, 2008). In addition, the theory proposes that relationships focus on the opposing behavior of people. In the film, it is clear that Harry and Sally began to regret because of spending a night together. The characters depicted a sense of guilt in different scenes (Reiner, 1989). As proposed by the theory, there are opposing tendencies because a relationship cannot exist without parties sacrificing their self-rule. Harry said he felt it was a mistake. While Sally agreed to Harry’s opinions verbally, her non-verbal tone in one of the scenes indicated she did not feel it was a mistake. The film confirms that the concept of just being friends and not lovers is not true. The theory proposes that when there is an interaction between people, the uncertainty between them reduces (Kanu, 2008). The theory presumes that when the relationship is beginning to grow, there are many doubts. Harry and

Epidemly and biostat Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Epidemly and biostat - Assignment Example Calculate: Q6. What is the annual incidence rate (per 1,000 persons) of lung cancer, if it is diagnosed in 70 patients per year within a community of 30,000 unaffected individuals? (Please show your calculations) [ONE POINT] Q7. Colon cancer is diagnosed in 20 patients per year within a community of 10,000 unaffected individuals. Half of the affected individuals die from colon cancer. What is the case fatality of colon cancer in this community? (Please show your calculations) [ONE POINT] Q8. Breast cancer is diagnosed in 20 patients per year within a community of 10,000 unaffected individuals. A screening test is applied to all residents of this community. What is the sensitivity (in %) of the screening test, if it detects 9 of the breast cancers. What is the specificity if the test correctly determines that 9,900 of the unaffected persons do not have breast cancer? (Please show your calculations) Q9. A physical examination and an audiometric test were given to 500 persons with suspected hearing problems, of whom 400 were actually found to have them. The results of the examinations were as follows: C. The occurrence of illnesses of similar nature clearly in excess of the normal expectation for that population at that time (this helps in vigorous management of the disease at that time to prevent its spread) Sensitivity is the ability of the test to correctly identify those individuals who have the disease. False negative is when testing equipment provides a negative result in a patient who has the disease (Gordis, 2009). Example: a glucometer may show high level of glucose in a newly diagnosed Diabetic patient this is called sensitivity, while in the glucometer can show low blood glucose in a patient with high blood sugars. Specificity is the ability of a test to correctly identify those individuals who have no disease, while false positive is when

Online Billing System Essay Example for Free

Online Billing System Essay POS, Inventory System, Networking and Web Based System are one of the most useful systems for the company. Nowadays, because of our technologies it’s easy to transfer the different information in different branch of company with the help of our computers and also the system. Almost all businesses use a POS process. There are many reasons for this. Many businesses have multiple locations. POS can help to automate transactions and it can records all the sales in the organization or we can say it can use it to make transaction easier. Every employee can also see all the transaction that has been made. Inventory System can be used for transactional updates or it can view all the available stocks and display out of stock products or items. Inventory System can have many advantages and are suitable in availability and display the in and out of stocks products. Networking’s usually use to connect the POS and Inventory system to all branches of the CreamlineDairy Corporation. Web Based System has many advantages and is preferable in POS, inventory and networking particularly notifying your outstanding sale. The company have been encountering some problem in terms of no link depot and main plant. They want to connect to the other branch, or we can say they want to view their point of sale and inventory system to their entire branch. The purpose of our system is to let every branch of Creamline be updated to the transactions of sale by the help of networking. The develop system will be a great help to the employee but of course for the manager even if they are not in the organization. Creamline Dairy Corporation located at Unit 701 Prestige tower condominium, F. Ortigas Jr. Ave.(Fromely Emerald Ave.), Ortigas Center Pasig City 1605 Philippines.Creamline’s plant and head office is located at Bldg. 5210, C.M. Recto Highway, Clark FreeportZone, Pampangga.

Nervous Systems And Sensory Organs

Nervous Systems And Sensory Organs You take a needle and prick your finger, your response is probably to get your finger away from the needlepoint quickly and maybe yell ouch. You take the same needle and poke a protist, sponge, cnidarian, or worm with it and they will all probably exhibit a similar response, at least they will all retreat. But how can this be possible? Protists are unicellular organisms that dont have a system to communicate after coming in contact with a stimulus. Similarly, sponges just sit on a rock all day, they also dont have any nervous functions. Cnidarians on the other hand have a nerve net, but how do they coordinate responses without a brain? All of these questions, along with how body plans relate to nervous system evolution, will be answered as this paper explores the evolution of the nervous system and sense organs from protists to the vertebrates. The Protists The classification of protozoans has been changed a lot through time. Cavalier-Smith (1993) came up with what he called the simplest definition of the kingdom Protozoa. They are eukaryotes, other than those that primitively lack mitochondria and peroxisomes, which lack the shared derived characters that define the higher derived kingdoms of Animalia, Fungi, and Plantae (Cavalier-Smith, 1993). Even though protozoans are simple unicellular organisms, they can still respond to many of the same stimuli higher order organisms respond too. Take for example that science class most students have. You put paramecium under a microscope and try to touch them with a probe, or watch their response to the light from the microscope. Most of the time when the anterior membrane of Paramecium is mechanically stimulated the ciliary power stroke reorients so the cell swims backwards, or retreats (Ogura Machemer, 1980). If the posterior membrane is stimulated the cilia beat towards the rear, causing the organism to move forward (Ogura Machemer, 1980). The light from the microscope can affect both the photoreceptors and thermoreceptors of the protists. The unicellular alga Euglena shows two regions of peak sensitivity to light during photokinesis at 465 nm and then again near 630 nm and during phototaxis 490-500 nm (Leys et al., 2002). Euglena is phototactic and its system consists of locomotory flagellum, an eyespot, and a photoreceptor (Gualtieri, 2001). As the organism moves, the eyespot senses the amount of light that reaches it and therefore pushes the Euglena in the direction of more light (Gualtieri, 2001). But moving towards light also means a change in temperature, especially if the light source is close to the organism. Paramecium cells are themo-sensitive and tend to accumulate at temperatures they were cultured at (Toyoda et al., 2009). They become used to their membrane fluidity at this temperature, and small temperatures changes drastically change this fluidity (Toyoda et al., 2001). If the temperatures change too much the Paramecium will retreat away from the heat in order to survive (Hennessey, Saimi, Kung, 1983). Protists also have chemosensory responses to certain odorants and tastes. Rodgers, Markle, and Hennessey (2008) found G-protein coupled receptors in the Paramecium. They tested whether Paramecium and Tetrahymena could respond to the common higher order organisms odorants and tastants (Rodgers, Markle, Hennessey, 2008). If they are affected by the odorants or tastants they will do an avoiding reaction, which can be seen when the organism is leaving an attractant or enters a repellent (Valentine, Yano, Van Houten, 2008). The Tetrahymena was more sensitive and could detect all of the tastants sampled, while Paramecium only detected four or the ten (Rodgers, Markle, Hennessey, 2008). Since Paramecium feed on bacteria Valentine, Yano, and Van Houten (2008) showed that they are attracted to bacterial metabolites such as, folate, acetate, glutamate, cyclic AMP, Biotin, and Ammonium. So an organism without a nervous system or sense organs has the ability to respond to many of the same env ironmental factors that higher order organisms respond too. Poriferia Similar to the protozoans, sponges lack definite body symmetry and also lack nerves and cell junctions, allowing no communication between cells (Leys et al., 2002). Sponges do respond to both light and mechanical stimuli. Recently, some sponges have been found to respond to light by contracting their cilia (Leys et al., 2002). Most larvae, via their cilia, are sensitive to light near 440 nm and again at 600 nm causing them to respond by straightening and bending (Leys et al., 2002). Although sponges lack neurons they are sedimentary feeders and therefore need ways of dealing with excessive particulates in their feeding currents (Tompkins-MacDonald Leys, 2008). Cellular sponges have the ability to close the openings to their incurrent canals, constrict the size of their intake canals, and even carry out a series of slow contractions that expel unwanted material (Tompkins-MacDonald Leys, 2008). The syncytial tissues of glass sponges allow action potentials initiated at single or mult iple sites to propagate through the entire animal, stopping the feeding current (Tompkins-MacDonald Leys, 2008). When Tompkins-MacDonald and Leys (2008) tested this response they found that by probing the interal body wall, allowing light to touch the outer body wall, or by knocking on the outer body wall pumping was stopped. This shows that a sponge, although not having an nerves or cell junctions can still respond to its environment. Cnidaria and Ctenophora Cnidaria and Ctenophora are the most basally branching lineages with specialized sense organs. The Cnidaria are radially symmetrical and have a nerve net where the sensor and ganglionic neurons and their processes are interspersed among the epithelial cells of both layers (Watanabe, Fujisawa, Holstein, 2009). Sensory structures that form part of epidermis are found in all animal phyla. Cnidarian neurons do not cluster to form a central nervous system or ganglia, which is why the nerve net is considered the simplest nervous system (Sarnat Netsky, 2002). In cnidarians sensory structures consist of naked sensory neurons whose dendrite is formed by a modified cilium (Jacobs et al., 2007). Sensilla are individual sensory neurons, or small groupings of sensory neurons, that typically function in one of the following; light detection, mechanoreception, and chemoreception (Jacobs et al., 2007). Photoreception and chemoreception involve G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and membrane ion c hannels, similar to what was observed in the protists (Jacobs et al., 2007). Jacobs et al. (2007) believes that sense organs and kidneys in bilterians may have evolved from groupings of choanocytes in sponges. Cnidarian sense organs are usually associated with the free swimming form that resembles a jellyfish (Jacobs et al., 2007). Neural regionalization is most evident in the medusozoans that have rhopalia , an eye system with lenses (Watanabe, Fujisawa, Holstein, 2009). Other cnidarians contain simple eyes. A statocyst is a dense array of mechanosensory cells that serve as a touch plate (Jacob et al., 2007). In most cnidarians the rhopalia, sense organ, alternate with tentacles, appendages, similar to how vertebrates have organs associated with appendages (Jacobs et al., 2007). Photoreceptors responsible for contractions in Hydra in response to blue light at 470 nm, are consistent in spectral location and shape with a rhodopsin-based photoreceptive system (Leys et al., 2002). One of the newest findings deal with coral larvae and their exterior cilia being able to detect and respond to underwater sound fields (Vermeij et al., 2010). Vermeij et al. (2010) setup six chambers directed towards underwater speakers playing day and night reef sounds. Free-swimming coral larvae moved predominately towards the speakers independent of chamber orientation (Vermeij et al., 2010). This study was done because fish larvae used it as well. Platyhelminthes The flatworms have true bilateral symmetry (Reuter Gustafsson, 1995). Some flatworms have a nerve net like Cnidarians. Others have a central nervous system that consists of anterior ganglia, the brain, and one or several pairs of longitudinal nerve cords that are connected in a ladder-like configuration (Reuter Gustafsson, 1995). The peripheral nervous system is just a meshwork of nerves that are interconnected to the central nervous system (Reuter Gustafsson, 1995). Platyhelminthes has eyes, a light sensing organ, on the dorsal side of the body composed of two cell types: pigment cells and photoreceptor cells (Inoue et al., 2004). The pigment cells form an eye-cup while the visual neurons are located outside the eye-cup (Inoue et al., 2004). The eyes do not allow Planarians to see distinct images, but allows them to be repulsed by bright light, a condition known as negative phototrophism (Hyde, 2003). Not only does the head bear a pair of eyes, but a also a pair of ear-like lobes called auricles. Auricles have nothing to do with hearing; instead they are involved in mechanoreception, chemoreception, and pressure reception (Hyde, 2003). Nematodes Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) has been established as a genetic and genomic model organism (Zhang, 2008). C. elegans does not have a visual or auditory system so it depends on chemosensation to detect bacteria to feed on (Zhang, 2008). C. elegans has exactly 302 neurons, 32 of which are chemosensory because they have ciliated endings that are directly exposed to their external environment (Troemel et al., 1995). Free-living nematodes use amphids and phasmids as sensory structures to seek food and avoid harmful situations, while parasitic nematodes use amphids to actively or passively see a host (Srinivasan, Durak, Sternberg, 2008). Amphids are either enclosed in the amphid sheath or exposed to the environment (Zhang, 2008). Ascaris lumbricoides (A. lumbricoides), a larger nematode, contains 298 neurons (Srinivasan, Durak, Sternberg, 2008). Each group of neurons reacts to certain stimuli. For example, some respond to salt (ASE chemosensory neurons), others respond to volatile al dehydes, ketones, and alcohols (AWC olfactory neurons), and yet others respond to chemical, mechanical, and osmotic stimuli (ASH neurons) (Srinivasan, Durak, Sternberg, 2008; Troemel et al., 1995). Mollusks, Annelids, and Arthropods There are three different nervous systems seen in mollusks alone. Bivalves tend to have no cephalization, while slowing moving mollusks have some cephalization, primary to connect senses and motor information while moving through the environment (Gregory, 2006). The cephalopods require complex sense organs and so they are highly cephalized Gregory, 2006). The cephalopods are known for their well-developed eye, that functions almost exactly like the human eye, which is why they such good eye sight (Oceanic Research Group, 2007). Annelids and Arthropods have repeating segments and an anterior brain. Each segment contains its own ganglion, which controls the muscles of that segment (Gregory, 2006). The nerve cord of both phylum runs directly through all of the segments (Gregory, 2006). These two were grouped together because they are very similar in function for being two different phyla. Vertebrates Amphioxous, part of the phylum chordata, are only capable of a few reflexive responses. They do not have the ability to recognize tactile stimuli, so all stimuli are interpreted as a threat and the organism curls away in defense (Sarnat Netsky, 2002). This reaction demonstrates how neurons that feel the stimuli on one side of the body are transmitted and affect motor neurons on the other side of the body (Sarnat Netsky, 2002). The neuron that served this function was known as the decussating interneuron (Sarnat Netsky, 2002). This is the underlying groundwork of the vertebrate nervous systems. Vertebrates have bilateral symmetry, complex sense organs and complex behaviors, requiring a very cephalized, complex nervous system. Vertebrates consist of two nervous systems, the Central and Peripheral. The central nervous system (CNS) contains the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of the nerves running through the body. The CNS has been conservative in its evolution, especially when looking at the senses of the vertebrates (Hodos Butler, 1997). The receptor types are either monopolar or pseudomonopolar neurons, each consist of parallel pathways connecting the receptors to the primary central neurons, which are located inside the sense organs where the stimuli is processed (Hodos Butler, 1997). Nerves are bundles of neurons, without cells bodies (Gregory, 2006). Most nerves contain both sensory and motor abilities (Gregory, 2006). There are both cranial and spinal nerves. There are multiple cranial nerves in all vertebrates, with humans having 12, and they are responsible for both sensory and motor information (Brown, 2003). The nerves are numbered using roman numerals from 1 to 12 (Brown, 2003). Brown (2003) described all of the following cranial nerves. Cranial nerve I is the olfactory nerve and it carries the sense of smell to the olfactory bulb of the brain. Cranial nerve II is the optic nerve and it carries visual information to the brain. Cranial nerve III is the oculomotor nerve and it provides motor ability to the four-extrinisic eye muscles, muscles of the upper eyelid, and intrinsic eye muscles. Cranial nerve IV is the trochlear nerve and it gives motor ability to the superior oblique eye muscle. Cranial nerve V is the trigeminal nerve and it provides sensory info rmation from the face, forehead, nasal cavity, tongue, gums and teeth. Cranial nerve VI is the abducens nerve gives motor ability to the lateral rectus muscle of the extrinisic eye. VII is the Facial nerve that provides humans with facial expressions. VIII is the vestibulocochlear nerve and it innervates the hair cell receptors of the inner ear. IX or the glossopharyngeal nerve moves the pharynx, soft palate, and posterior region of the tongue. X is the vagus nerve, it is the longest nerve, and provides sense transports from the ear to the taste buds to the throat. Cranial nerve XI is the spinal accessory nerve and it is involved in swallowing and powering muscle movement for the upper shoulders, head, and neck. Lastly, XII is the hypoglossal nerve and it moves the muscles of the tongue (Brown, 2003). As you can see the ability for control of all of these senses and movements makes for a very complex nervous, something that was never seen in earlier organisms. The spinal nerves are connected directly to the spinal cord by two roots, the dorsal (strictly sensory) and ventral (strictly motor) (Gregory, 2006). All of the above are seen in the PNS, which is then subdivided into the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System. The Somatic Nervous System is the voluntary system, including all of the nerves that serve the skeletal muscles and exterior sense organs (Gregory, 2006). Reflexes are also seen in this nervous system. Just like in the lower organisms, vertebrates respond to stimuli. Except vertebrates have a much more complex stimulus-reflex system. Remember how a Paramecium came in contact with a stimulus and retreated until adaptation occurred? Vertebrates have the ability to think about coming in contact with a stimulus, they dont have to come in contact with everything they see because they have the somatic nervous system (Gregory, 2006). The other subdivision is the autonomic nervous system that is responsible for actions without conscious control; examples are heart beating and smooth muscle actions (Gregory, 2006). Everything in the PNS needs a place to send its information too and that is why there is the central nervous system. In the more primitive animals the brain, or ganglia, was there to simply send out reflexes to external stimuli (Gregory, 2006). The vertebrates have evolved a very complex brain because they have the ability to respond to reflexes, hold memory, learn, and think (Gregory, 2006). The brain has three divisions, the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. The important portion when talking about senses is the midbrain because it receives sensory information and sends it to the forebrain to be processed (Gregory, 2006). In fishes and amphibians it is geared towards reflexes associated with visual input (Gregory, 2006). The cerebrum in reptiles, birds, and mammals receives sensory information and coordinates motor responses (Gregory, 2006). There are four lobes the frontal (motor functions), parietal (sensory receptors from skin), occipital (vision), and temporal (hearing and sm elling) (Gregory, 2006). Similar to decussating interneuron in Amphixous, vertebrates have the corpus callosum that contains neurons that cross from one side of the brain to the other, allowing communication between both sides (Gregory, 2006). Conclusion Bioluminescence is when luciferase catalyzes the oxidation of luciferin to excited oxyluciferin that then relaxes to produce a visible photon (Akilesh, 2000). The most common colors for bioluminescence are blue and green, although red and violet can be seen as well (Akilesh, 2000). Bioluminescence was developed in order to protect the organism. For example dinoflagellates flash their light during night or dark cycles to distract predators and reveal their predator to higher predators (Akilesh, 2000). Another example is the cookie-cutter shark, whose belly lights up, and is covered during the day by another organ. When the shark swims up in the waters its neck does not have the bioluminescence and so it appears to be a small fish and when bigger predators get close it attacks (Akilesh, 2000). Bioluminescence is seen more in aquatic organisms, probably because it is more beneficial to them in the mercy waters. This paper talked about the different phylum from protists all the way to vertebrates. Protists being unicellular and having no nervous system still had the ability to respond to many different kinds of environmental stimuli. Sponges have no symmetry and they are also able to respond to environmental stimuli, although usually larvae respond to more. Cnidarians have radial symmetry and therefore a corresponding nerve net, which helps them respond to environmental stimuli. Platelyhelminthes are the first to have bilateral symmetry and to go along with that their nervous system extends the length of its body, with centralization in the head, or anterior end. They also have to ganglia at the end of each nerve cord and the nerve cords are connected to allow both sides of the body to move together. The mollusks have a wide range of diversity in their nervous systems, ranging from nerve nets to highly cephalized cephalopods. The segmentation of annelids and arthropods allows each segment to be controlled individually but the nerve cord still runs through each segment. The vertebrates have the most evolved nervous system. This is because they have the ability to respond to stimuli, hold memory, learn, and think. 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